A Comprehensive Guide to Radiographic Sciences and Technology

Foreword

Preface

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1: Radiographic Sciences and Technology: An Overview

• Radiographic Imaging Systems: Major Modalities and Components
• Radiographic Imaging Physics
• Essential Physics of Diagnostic Imaging
• Digital Radiographic Imaging Modalities
• Radiographic Exposure Technique
• Image Quality Considerations
• Computed Tomography-Physics and Instrumentation
• Quality Control
• Imaging Informatics at a Glance
• Radiation Protection and Dose Optimization
• Radiobiology
• Technical Factors Affecting Dose in Radiographic Imaging
• Radiation Protection in Diagnostic Radiography
• Radiation Protection Regulations
• Optimization of Radiation Protection
• References

Chapter 2: Digital Radiographic Imaging Systems: Major Components

• Film-Screen Radiography: A Short Review of Principles
• Digital Radiography Modalities: Major System Components
• Computed Radiography
• Flat-Panel Digital Radiography
• Digital Fluoroscopy
• Digital Mammography
• Computed Tomography
• Image Communication Systems
• Picture Archiving and Communication System
• References

SECTION 2: BASIC RADIOGRAPHIC SCIENCES and TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 3: Basic Physics of Diagnostic Radiography

• Structure of the Atom
• Nucleus
• Electrons, Quantum Levels, Binding Energy, Electron Volts
• Energy Dissipation in Matter
• Excitation
• Ionization
• Types of Radiation
• Electromagnetic
• Particulate
• X-Ray Generation
• X-Ray Production
• Properties of X-rays
• Origin of X-Rays
• Characteristic Radiation
• Bremstrahlung Radiation
• X-ray Emission
• X-Ray Beam Quantity and Quality
• Factors Affecting X-Ray Beam Quantity and Quality
• Interaction of Radiation with Matter
• Mechanisms of Interaction in Diagnostic X-Ray Imaging
• Radiation Attenuation
• Linear Attenuation Coefficient
• Mass Attenuation Coefficient
• Half Value Layer
• Radiation Quantities and Units
• References

Chapter 4: The X-Ray Tube and Generator

• Physical Components of the X-Ray Machine
• Components of the X-Ray Circuit
• The Power Supply to the X-Ray Circuit
• The Low Voltage Section (Control Console)
• The High Voltage Section
• Types of X-Ray Generators
• Three-Phase Generators
• High-Frequency Generators
• Power Ratings
• The X-Ray Tube: Structure and Function
• Major Components
• Special X-Ray Tubes: Basic Design Features
• Double-Bearing Axle
• Heat Capacity and Heat Dissipation Considerations
• X-Ray Beam Filtration and Collimation
• Inherent and Added Filtration
• Effects of Filtration on X-ray Tube Output Intensity
• Half-Value Layer
• Collimation
• References

Chapter 5: Digital Image Processing at a Glance

• Digital Image Processing
• Definition
• Image Formation and Representation
• Processing Operations
• Characteristics of Digital Images
• Gray Scale Processing
• Windowing
• Conclusion
• References

Chapter 6: Digital Radiographic Imaging Modalities: Principles and Technology

• Computer Radiography
• Essential Steps
• Basic Physical Principles
• Response of the IP to Radiation Exposure
• Standardized Exposure Indicator
• Flat-Panel Digital Radiography
• What is Flat-Panel Digital Radiography (FPDR)?
• Types of FPDR Systems
• Basic Physical Principles of Indirect and Direct Flat-Panel Detectors
• The Fill Factor of the Pixel in the Flat-Panel Detector
• Exposure Indicator
• Image Quality Descriptors for DR Systems
• Continuous Quality Improvement for DR Systems
• Digital Fluoroscopy
• Digital Fluoroscopy Modes
• Image Intensifier-Based Digital Fluoroscopy Characteristics
• Flat-Panel Digital Fluoroscopy Characteristics
• Digital Mammography
• Screen-Film Mammography: Basic Principles
• Full-Field Digital Mammography-Major Elements
• Digital Tomosynthesis at a Glance
• Imaging System Characteristics
• Synthesized 2D Digital Mammography
• References

Chapter 7: Image Quality and Dose

• The process of Creating an Image
• Image Quality Metrics
• Contrast
• Contrast Resolution
• Spatial Resolution
• Noise
• Contrast-to-Noise Ratio
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• Artifacts
• Dose and Image Quality
• Digital Detector Response to the Dose
• Detective Quantum Efficiency
• References

SECTION 3: COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY: BASIC PHYSICS and TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 8: The Essential Technical Aspects of Computed Tomography

• Physics
• Radiation Attenuation
• Technology
• Data Acquisition: Principles and Components
• Image Reconstruction
• Image Display, Storage, and Communication
• MultiSlice CT (MSCT): Principles and Technology
• Slip-Ring Technology
• X-Ray Tube Technology
• Interpolation Algorithms
• MSCT Detector Technology
• Selectable Scan Parameters
• Isotropic CT Imaging
• MSCT Image Processing
• Image Postprocessing
• Windowing
• 3-D Image Display Techniques
• Image Quality
• Spatial Resolution
• Contrast Resolution
• Noise
• Radiation Protection
• CT Dosimetry
• Factors Affecting Patient Dose
• Optimizing Radiation Protection
• Conclusion
• References

SECTION 4: CONTINUOUS QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

Chapter 9: Fundamentals of Quality Control

• Introduction
• Definitions
• Essential Steps of QC
• QC Responsibilities
• Steps in Conducting a QC Test
• The Tolerance Limits or Acceptance Criteria
• Parameters for QC Monitoring
• QC Testing Frequency
• Tools for QC Testing
• The Format of a QC Test
• Performance Criteria/Tolerance Limits for Common QC Tests
• Radiography
• Fluoroscopy
• Repeat Image Analysis
• Computed Tomography QC Tests for Technologists
• References

SECTION 5: PACS and IMAGING INFORMATICS

Chapter 10: Imaging Informatics at a Glance

• Introduction
• Picture Archiving and Communication Systems: Characteristic Features
• Definition
• Core Technical Components
• Imaging Informatics? 
• Enterprise Imaging
• Cloud Computing
• Big Data
• Artificial Intelligence
• Machine Learning and Deep Learning
• Applications in Medical Imaging
• AI in CT Image Reconstruction
• Ethics of AI in Radiology-A Joint Multi-Society Summary Statement. 
• References

SECTION 5: RADIATION PROTECTION

Chapter 11: Basic Concepts of Radiobiology

• What is Radiobiology?
• Generalizations About Radiation Effects on Living Organisms
• Relevant Physical Processes
• Ionization
• Excitation
• Linear Energy Transfer
• Relative Biological Effectiveness
• Radiolysis of Water
• Dose-Response Models
• The Linear Non-Threshold (LNT) Dose-Response Model
• The Linear Threshold Dose-Response Model
• Stochastic Effects
• Deterministic Effects
• Radiation Effects on the Conceptus
• References

Chapter 12: Technical Dose Factors in Radiography, Fluoroscopy, and CT

• Dose Factors in Digital Radiography
• The X-Ray Generator
• Exposure Technique Factors
• X-Ray Beam Filtration
• Collimation and Field Size
• SID and SSD
• Patient Thickness and Density
• Scattered Radiation Grid
• The Sensitivity of the Image Receptor
• Dose Factors in Fluoroscopy
• Fluoroscopic Exposure Factors
• Fluoroscopic Equipment Factors
• CT Radiation Dose Factors and Dose Optimization Considerations
• Dose Distribution in the Patient
• CT dose Metrics
• Factors Affecting the Dose in CT
• Dose Optimization Overview
• References

Chapter 13: Essential Principles of Radiation Protection

• Introduction
• Why Radiation Protection?
• Categories of Data from Human Exposure
• Radiation Dose-Risk Models
• Summary of Biological Effects
• Radiation Protection Organizations
• Objectives of Radiation Protection
• Radiation Protection Philosophy
• ICRP Radiation Protection Framework
• Justification
• Optimization
• Dose Limits
• Dose Limits
• Personal Actions
• Time
• Shielding
• Distance
• Radiation Quantities and Units
• Sources of Radiation Exposure
• Quantities and Units
• Personnel Dosimetry
• Optimization of Radiation Protection
• Regulatory and Guidance Recommendations
• Diagnostic Reference Levels
• Gonadal Shielding: Past Considerations
• X-Ray Protective Shielding
• Current State of Gonadal Shielding
• References

Index

Euclid Seeram, PhD, FCAMRT, is a Full Member of the Health Physics Society and has academic appointments as Honorary Senior Lecturer in Medical Radiation Sciences at the University of Sydney, Australia; Adjunct Associate Professor of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences at Monash University, Australia; Adjunct Professor in the Faculty of Science at Charles Sturt University, Australia; and Adjunct Professor of Medical Radiation Sciences at the University of Canberra, Australia.